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sion of various populations of musicians. The occurrence of MPA varies
from 16.5% to 60% (Fernholz et al., 2019).

3.3.1.1 Individual and Contextual Differences
in Experiencing MPA
Dianna Theadora Kenny (2011) has summarized the findings of nu-
merous studies that confirm the occurrence of MPA regardless of age,
gender, level of musical ability, experience (Boucher & Ryan, 2011; Bru- 121
gués, 2011; Dempsey, 2015; Habe & Kržič, 2017; Hendricks et al., 2014),
and the impact on both professional musicians and students (Braden et
al., 2015; Clarke et al., 2020; Juncos & Markman, 2016; Kenny et al.,
2014). MPA is generally more intense when the performer is being eval-
uated and the fear of failure is present, but it can occur in absolutely any
performance situation (Kenny, 2011). Many top classical performers of
world renown struggled with MPA, e.g. Martha Argerich, Maria Cal-
las, Enrico Caruso, Frederic Chopin, Vladimir Horowitz, and Sergei
Rachmaninoff.
MPA is shaped by both individual and contextual factors. It appears
to involve a combination of genetic factors and the learning environment
(Figueiredo Rocha, 2021). Certain personality traits are thought to pre-
dict MPA, and a number of studies report that it has a meaningful pos- Pre-Performance Excitement as the Main Stressor in Musicians
itive correlation with anxiety as a trait (Cox & Kenardy, 1993; Habe,
1998; Kenny et al., 2004; Kokotsaki & Davidson, 2003; Osborne & Ken-
ny, 2008; Smith & Rickard, 2004¸ Wiedemann et al., 2019) or that neu-
roticism (emotional lability) predicts MPA (Miranda, 2020; Smith &
Rickard, 2004; Steptoe, 1989). Sadler and Miller (2010) report that neg-
ative emotional states predict over half of cases of MPA in performers.
The connection between MPA and social anxiety has also been exten-
sively documented (Nicholson et al., 2015; Dobos et al., 2019; Kenny,
2011; Nicholson et al., 2015). A number of authors have confirmed a link
between MPA and concepts of self-evaluation, such as self-esteem and
self-efficacy, which is particularly true for music students (Dobos & Piko,
2017; Habe, 1998; Schröder & Liebelt, 1999). Bianka Dobos and Betti-
na Franciska Piko (2017) have found that self-esteem and self-efficacy
are protective factors in terms of prevention against MPA. The latter is
thought to also be related to self-representations (Castiglione et al., 2018;
Schnare et al., 2012; Varvarigou et al., 2014). Claudia Castiglione et al.
(2018) report that higher levels of MPA are associated with a higher dis-
crepancy between current and future self-representations of musical self
in professional musicians.