Page 73 - Petelin Ana. Ur. 2022. Zdravje otrok in mladostnikov / Health of children and adolescents. Proceedings. Koper: Založba Univerze na Primorskem/University of Primorska Press
P. 73
Effects of nutrition on infant’s microbiota nutrition for healthy term infants and the role of gut microbiota 73
Breast milk is widely accepted as the nutritional gold standard for infants, with
recommended EBF for the first 6 months (World Health Assembly, 2002). In
addition to the essential nutrients, the breast milk contains complex micro-
bial community, that is not aleatory assembled (Drago et al., 2017). As shown
by Biagi et al. (2018), different types of microbial communities in milk are as�-
sociated with features in the infant’s gut and mouth ecosystems, such as high
relative abundance of the most important probiotic group of bifidobacteria.
Additionally to the intrinsic health-promoting effects of milk itself, feeding di-
rectly from the breast can contribute to the preterm infant’s microbiome as-
sembly (Biagi et al., 2018). However, the breastmilk composition is adjusted
to the needs of the new-born and is changing over time e.g., colostrum is rich
in human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs), while mature milk contains greater
amounts of proteins (Bode, 2012). HMOs represent one of the most abundant
bioactive molecules in human milk known to stimulate the growth and coloni-
zation of beneficial gut microbiota species and suppress the growth of oppor-
tunistic pathogenic species (Newburg et al., 2005). While the gut microbiota
of breastfed infants is characterized by the higher counts of bifidobacteria and
lactobacilli and lower levels of potential pathogens, the gut microbiota of for-
mula-fed infants is associated with a more diverse gut microbiota that is dom-
inated by Staphylococcus, Enterococcus, Bacteroides, Clostridium, enterobacte-
ria, and the genus Atopobium (Martin et al., 2016). It was also shown that breast
milk in the case of EBF infants may provide the gut microbiome with a great-
er plasticity that eases the transition into CF (Thompson et al., 2015). The last
induces the development of a mature microbiota with genes responsible for
complex carbohydrate, starch, and xenobiotic degradation as well as vitamin
production (Koenig et al., 2011). Although the introduction of solid foods is a
major event in the first year of life, it is little known to what extent the choice of
specific foods or the diversity of introduced foods influence microbial commu-
nity diversity, structure, and taxonomy in the gut (Homann et al., 2021). Main�-
ly the introduction of solid foods has been associated with changes in phyla
abundances, especially an increase in Bacteroidetes (Koenig et al., 2011). How-�
ever, some study results suggest that the introduction of solid food does not ap-
pear to result in a profound shift in microbial community structure as long as
breastfeeding is continued (Galazzo et al., 2020).
The role of gut microbiota in infant’s health
Gut microbiota was recognized as an important determinant of the GI, im-
mune and central nervous system (CNS) development. Therefore, an early life
as a critical period for microbial colonization can affect not only the infant’s
health but is also profound for wellbeing further in life (Yao et al., 2021). While
an early life is a period of fast brain development, the gut microbiota metabo-
lites (e.g., short-chain fatty acids and lipopolysaccharides) are one of the most
important components that pass directly through epithelial cells and can reg-
Breast milk is widely accepted as the nutritional gold standard for infants, with
recommended EBF for the first 6 months (World Health Assembly, 2002). In
addition to the essential nutrients, the breast milk contains complex micro-
bial community, that is not aleatory assembled (Drago et al., 2017). As shown
by Biagi et al. (2018), different types of microbial communities in milk are as�-
sociated with features in the infant’s gut and mouth ecosystems, such as high
relative abundance of the most important probiotic group of bifidobacteria.
Additionally to the intrinsic health-promoting effects of milk itself, feeding di-
rectly from the breast can contribute to the preterm infant’s microbiome as-
sembly (Biagi et al., 2018). However, the breastmilk composition is adjusted
to the needs of the new-born and is changing over time e.g., colostrum is rich
in human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs), while mature milk contains greater
amounts of proteins (Bode, 2012). HMOs represent one of the most abundant
bioactive molecules in human milk known to stimulate the growth and coloni-
zation of beneficial gut microbiota species and suppress the growth of oppor-
tunistic pathogenic species (Newburg et al., 2005). While the gut microbiota
of breastfed infants is characterized by the higher counts of bifidobacteria and
lactobacilli and lower levels of potential pathogens, the gut microbiota of for-
mula-fed infants is associated with a more diverse gut microbiota that is dom-
inated by Staphylococcus, Enterococcus, Bacteroides, Clostridium, enterobacte-
ria, and the genus Atopobium (Martin et al., 2016). It was also shown that breast
milk in the case of EBF infants may provide the gut microbiome with a great-
er plasticity that eases the transition into CF (Thompson et al., 2015). The last
induces the development of a mature microbiota with genes responsible for
complex carbohydrate, starch, and xenobiotic degradation as well as vitamin
production (Koenig et al., 2011). Although the introduction of solid foods is a
major event in the first year of life, it is little known to what extent the choice of
specific foods or the diversity of introduced foods influence microbial commu-
nity diversity, structure, and taxonomy in the gut (Homann et al., 2021). Main�-
ly the introduction of solid foods has been associated with changes in phyla
abundances, especially an increase in Bacteroidetes (Koenig et al., 2011). How-�
ever, some study results suggest that the introduction of solid food does not ap-
pear to result in a profound shift in microbial community structure as long as
breastfeeding is continued (Galazzo et al., 2020).
The role of gut microbiota in infant’s health
Gut microbiota was recognized as an important determinant of the GI, im-
mune and central nervous system (CNS) development. Therefore, an early life
as a critical period for microbial colonization can affect not only the infant’s
health but is also profound for wellbeing further in life (Yao et al., 2021). While
an early life is a period of fast brain development, the gut microbiota metabo-
lites (e.g., short-chain fatty acids and lipopolysaccharides) are one of the most
important components that pass directly through epithelial cells and can reg-
