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Fundamental Biomechanical Principles

elbow, and wrist during punching actions (Megafu et al., 2025), and in the
hip, knee, and ankle during kicking actions (García Blanco et al., 2025;
Thomas & Ornstein, 2018). Kinematic analyses of the roundhouse kick in
elite Muay Thai, karate, and taekwondo athletes have demonstrated that
effective execution depends on the coordinated interaction of rapid ax-
ial pelvic rotation, hip abduction and flexion, rapid knee extension, and
translation of the centre of mass towards the target (Gavagan & Sayers,
2017). Similarly, studies examining taekwondo kicking techniques indi-
cate that intersegmental coordination between the hip and knee joints
plays a central role in generating limb velocity and impact force. Dif-
ferent kicking techniques (e.g., back kick, roundhouse kick) rely on dis-
tinct combinations of ‘push’ and ‘throw’ movement patterns, which are
reflected in both impact velocity and joint loading profiles (Kim et al.,
2011).
These findings suggest that, in the context of kicking and striking tech-
niques, it is essential to distinguish between the desired mechanical ef-
fect (speed and force generation) and the acceptable level of loading im-
posed on joint structures. Inefficient force transmission – for example, re-
sulting from inadequate trunk activation, insufficient scapular stabilisa-
tion, or poor eccentric control of the lower extremities – may contribute
to overload of the shoulder girdle, elbow, or knee, particularly during re-
peated high-intensity striking actions. Poor trunk control has been asso-
ciated with increased joint loading and elevated knee injury risk (Zazu-
lak et al., 2007), while scapular dyskinesis has been linked to overload-
related shoulder pain and dysfunction (Kibler et al., 2012). Furthermore,
biomechanical analyses of jumping and kicking actions indicate that in-
sufficient eccentric control of the lower extremities increases knee joint
loading during explosive high-intensity movements (Gavagan & Sayers,
2017; Kim et al., 2011).
A common biomechanical characteristic across all combat sports is
the substantial exposure of the head and cervical spine to loading. In
grappling combat sports, this occurs primarily during throwing and land-
ing situations involving cervical flexion, hyperextension, or rotational
loading under force, whereas in striking combat sports it is associat-
ed mainly with direct blows to the head and neck. A recent narrative
review of injuries in combat sports, focusing specifically on the cervi-
cal spine, identified the most common diagnoses as ‘stingers’ (brachial
plexus involvement), paralumbar and cervical muscle strains, and disco-
genic pain. Inadequate technique, insufficient trunk-muscle activation,

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